Environment

Thursday, July 26, 2012

Lecture 2 (26/07/12)

Dear I year MBA students , Today we discussed about energy basics:Definition,classification and forms;
Energy resources utility and their significance in the Modern world's activities.Students do follow the link to know more about our resource utilization pattern.We will meet again in the next class.
http://suvratk.blogspot.in/2010/07/indian-sedimentary-basins-and-shale-gas.html
Assignment:
Unit of Energy
which form energy is utilised more in present day world and why? what impacts the human society may face in future?

Wednesday, July 25, 2012

lecture 2: Assignment and Links

Dear II MBA ,Envtl. Mgmt. students today we saw the basics of Bio remediation : Definition,classification and strengths and weaknesses of the technique.
Some of you are not clear about Microorganisms. You can follow the link given below to understand the bugs clearly.
http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0212089/micr.htm
Today's Assignment:(25/07/'12)
Go through the link and come to the class well prepared

What are Micro organisms?
What is meant by Microbial Metabolism?
Name some of the species used in Phyco-remediation, Myco-remediation and Zoo- remediation?
See you all in the next class!!

Sustainable Energy Utilisation Strategies

Sustainable Energy:

Energy use in most countries is unsustainable in the long term, from both natural resource and environmental points of view. In rural areas throughout the developing world, the situation is more critical. The main - and often only - sources of energy for household use and food production are diminishing supplies of fuelwood, along with biomass residues and human and animal power. Dependence on these traditional energy sources is associated with poverty, health risks and human drudgery.

The "energizing" of the food production chain - both quantitively and qualitatively - based on diversified sources and a better use of commercial energy is one key to achieving food security and improving the living conditions of rural populations. However, breaking the current energy bottleneck must also be sustainable - environmentally sound, socially acceptable and economically viable.
The challenge is also an opportunity. By using the potential offered by renewable energy sources, agro-ecotechnologies, and innovative institutional and financial arrangements, rural areas could "leapfrog" to more sustainable energy systems and food security. These rural areas could become examples to other sectors of society, both in developing and industrialized countries.
There is, however, a danger. The energy sector is undergoing a rapid shift toward high energy efficiency, renewable energy sources, lower intensity industry and energy recycling. Agriculture will also move towards greater sustainability thanks to techniques such as organic farming, improved water and soil management, integrated pest management, mechanization and biotechnology.
The challenge in the medium term is to harness these changes for the benefit of the rural poor. If not, there is a risk that rural populations will be excluded from the shift to sustainability, and left to face either chaos in rural areas or massive emigration to urban centres.
Although Agenda 21 has no specific energy Chapter, energy issues are raised throughout the document, in the context of topics such as protection of the atmosphere, consumption patterns, environment, sustainable agriculture and rural development.
Since UNCED, progress has been achieved in energy development in several countries, regions and technological areas. Many countries are moving more rapidly toward renewable energy in rural areas. Examples include a wind energy programme for electrification in India, construction of thousands of biogas digesters in Nepal, use of solar photovoltaic generators in rural Zimbabwe, and decentralized renewable energy systems based on solar, wind and biomass energies in Argentina.
At national level, innovative financial schemes are finding their way into national and international policies and strategies, partly in response to declining government intervention, cost-reflecting pricing of energy carriers, and the abolition of subsidies. New avenues for dissemination of decentralized energy systems include local credit schemes, liberalized energy markets, energy services leasing systems and cooperative arrangements, all of which can benefit the rural poor.
At the international level, the ratification by 159 countries of the Framework Convention on Climate Change opens opportunities for new energy programmes leading to higher levels of sustainability. International financing through the Global Environment Fund and others, directed specifically to a net reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, has increased substantially.
Nevertheless, progress is weak, given the scale of the challenges. For example, achieving the food security targets of the World Food Summit requires a four- to sevenfold increase in commercial energy. This will, obviously, not happen under a "business as usual" approach.
Strategies for Sustainable Development: key issues
Strategies for sustainable development through planned energy inputs must rely on a convergence between national development policies and goals and locally perceived and identified priorities. Critical issues concern:

Policies

Energy must be seen as an integral part of overall developmental goals and strategies
Policies should correct the "energy deficit" in rural areas, where consumption is below subsistence level
The food security/energy nexus must be assessed to identify the best technological and economic strategies for meeting energy needs in food production. Sustainability will depend on integration of food security and energy policies.
Specific policies and programmes should be targeted to rural women, children and other groups responsible for collection and use of energy, mainly fuelwood

Technology

Although rural areas have the right to use all energy sources, policies should facilitate the transition to renewable resources, such as bioenergy, solar and wind energy - they are reliable, locally available, adaptable to small and medium scale energy requirements, and environmentally friendly
Upgrading the efficient use of biomass energy resources - including agricultural residues and energy plantations - offers job opportunities, environmental benefits and enhanced rural infrastructure
New energy programmes for sustainable rural development should be based on sound planning and preparation of human and technical resources.

Institutions

The potential benefits of privatization and reduced government intervention should be maximized to the benefit of the rural poor. Government action is still needed to create relevant legislation, regulations and overall policy guidance
Rural energy usually has no clear institutional backing. All concerned sectors - technical ministries, NGOs, public and private industry and financial institutions - should be mobilized around a common policy framework and strategy
National energy plans should converge with locally defined priorities - local farmers' and women's organizations and local authorities should participate fully in identifying, developing and implementing rural energy plans and programmes

Finance

Small scale investment is needed for renewable energy schemes in rural areas - this calls for innovative approaches such as microfinancing, cooperative systems, end-service payment, equipment leasing and flexible loans
Removing subsidies to conventional energy sources - except for those benefiting the poorest sectors - would help create an efficient and competitive market; remaining subsidies should be transparent, monitored and planned, and gradually phased out
Energy prices do not reflect environmental costs nor include social benefits - the internalization of full-cycle costs would permit a faster transition to sustainable energy systems, especially bioenergy

The role of FAO

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) helps integrate energy as a tool for food security and sustainability, develop renewable energy sources adapted to the needs of rural populations, and foster efficient use of conventional energy sources.
Assessment and planning. FAO has promoted national frameworks for sustainable energy in Asia, helped establish a Latin American and Caribbean Working Group on Energization for Sustainable Rural Development (GLAERS), and published a study on energy needs in African agricultural in the year 2010.
Renewable energy technologies. Regional wood energy networks in Latin America and Asia are promoting more efficient end use of wood as a modern energy carrier. FAO's biofuels programme covers such technologies as anaerobic digestion of organic wastes and residues, organic recycling, pyrolisis and briquetting. Solar energy applications include solar drying and solar cooking, heating, water pumping, communications, lighting, greenhouses and refrigeration.
Rural mechanization and draught animal power. FAO promotes introduction of machinery, tools and alternative technologies to rural areas, taking into account specific farming systems and agro-industrial activities. FAO supports the draught animal equipment components of agricultural mechanization projects and the improvement of animal systems for food production and other farm uses.
Integration of energy sources. Activities in this area include integration of alcohol production from sorghum with biogas, pyrolysis, solar and wind systems and energy conservation; and assessment of the potential of various renewable sources of energy in specific farm activities.

Institutional arrangements

While no international institution deals with energy as a whole, many institutions are active in different energy fields. FAO collaborates directly with a number of them, particularly those concerned with energy for rural development. For example:
World Energy Council: Collaboration with the Steering Committee of the WEC Developing Countries Committee in a specialized study on Rural Energy to be presented at the 1998 WEC Congress in Houston, USA
UNDPSD: Collaboration in the preparation of documentation for the UN Committee on New and Renewable Sources of Energy and Energy for Development and to CSD.
UNDP: Collaboration in preparation of the document "Energy after Rio: Prospects and Challenges", to be published 1997. Executive Summary published March 1997.
Unesco: Participation in the World Solar Summit and in its follow up.
African Development Bank: Joint study and publication on Energy Requirements of Africa's Agriculture.
OLADE and ECLAC: Collaboration in the Programme of Work of the Latin American and Caribbean Working Group on Energization for Sustainable Rural Development (GLAERS)
ESCAP: Collaboration in implementation of the Rural Energy and Environmental Programme, which forms part of the broader programme PACE-E

FAQs for energy paper

Dear Students, the questions and answers in short forms would be very useful for slow learners

Explain Global Warming

It is an increase in the average surface temperature of the Earth. Global warming has occurred in the distant past as the result of natural influences, but the term is most often used to refer to the warming predicted to occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases. The Earth's surface has warmed by about 1 degree Fahrenheit in the past 140 years. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently concluded that increased concentrations of greenhouse gases (co2, cH4, N2O, CFC and HF6) are causing an increase in the Earth's surface temperature and that increased concentrations of sulfate aerosols have led to relative cooling in some regions, generally over and downwind of heavily industrialized areas.

What is Emission Trading

Emissions Trading is the creation of surplus emission reductions at emissions sources and the use of this surplus to meet or redefine pollution requirements applicable to other emissions sources. This allows one source to increase emissions when another source reduces them, maintaining an overall constant emission level. Facilities that reduce emissions substantially may "bank" their "credits" or sell them to other facilities or industries

Define Geothermal energy ?

Geothermal energy is the energy gained by tapping the hotspots near the surface of the Earth's crust.

List the major impacts caused by nitrous oxide emission ?

Impact caused by Nitrous oxides are releasing during fossil fuel burning. In addition to being a greenhouse gas they are also ozone depleters. The increased use of fertilisers with the expansion of intensive farming is another major source of nitrogen oxides.

Define nuclear Energy?

Nuclear fission and fusion is the source of energy that is released either by splitting (fission) the nucleus of a heavy atom (usually uranium) or fusing (fusion) the nuclei of two light atoms.

Nuclear reprocessing is the recovery of unused plutonium or uranium from irradiated fuel that has been used up in nuclear reactors- the systems used to carry out nuclear fission.

What does the term valorize denote?

Valorise means to reuse, recycle or incinerate waste with energy recovery

Write a short note on Agenda 21?

Agenda 21 is the name of the agreement signed by most countries at the Rio Conference in 1992. "Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at preparing the world for the challenges of the next century. It reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development and environment co-operation.

How are acid Rains formed?

Atmospheric drops combine with a range of chemical pollutants such as carbon and sulphur dioxide to form rain, mist or snow that is more acid than normal. It can cause damage to plants many thousands of kilometres away from where it formed.

How are the rivers/waterbodies affected by discharge of coolant water from thermal plants.

The water bodies are affected by the Thermal pollution .It is the increase in temperature of a body of water due to the discharge of water used as a coolant in industrial processes or power production and can cause damage to aquatic life

NB:Cover all the five modules,without omitting any and my best wishes to you all.

For II MBA Students Lecture 1

Lecture1: Hello students.
Hope you have understood the course objectives which we discussed in the class.Please go through the Link which is given here:
http://www.chemistrydaily.com/chemistry/Bioremediation

Tuesday, November 22, 2011

Kudankulam Power project: issues

Kudankulam Power project-Indo Russian Project:

The proposed Kudankulam project is presently India's pride and joy, a signal to the world that India still has its supporters in the international community. But what is this Indo-Russian project, initiated by Rajiv Gandhi and then Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev 10 years ago. The site of the proposed nuclear power station is at Kudankulam, which is about 25 km from Kanyakumari, in Tamil Nadu's Tirunelveli district.

The VVER(Water cooled Water moderated Energy Reactor) 1000 MWe reactor is meant to serve the Southern Regional Grid. According to a 1997 survey, India at present produces 84,000 MWe power, largely from coal and hydro-energy. By the turn of the century, power requirements are estimated to touch three lakh MWe.

Kudankulam was selected for the project by the Department of Atomic Energyafter evaluating 13 coastal sites and five inland sites in Tamil Nadu. Since the region had a hard rock terrain and low seismic activity, it was considered the ideal site. Besides, there are no major dams and lakes nearby to cause induced seismicity. The most important consideration that weighed in its favor, however, was the fact that the area is not densely populated or industrialized.

Land, about two km in radius, has been acquired for the project. This will be the exclusive zone of the project. A further area with a radius ranging from two km to five km will form the sterilization zone, although land acquisition for this has yet to take place.

How safe is it?

Safety, of course, is of paramount concern. The project, based on a pressurised water reactor (PWR), is expected to abide by International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards. In a deviation from existing systems which use the boiling water reactor, the Nuclear Power Corporation (NPC) went in for the WWER/VVER (the acronym for watercooled, water moderated energy reactor the Russian word for water is voda) technology, expecting it to subsidise the country's indigenous thorium based three-stage nuclear programme.

There are at present 19 VVER 1000 plants in operation in different parts of the erstwhile Soviet Union and Bulgaria. India will be getting VVER-392, the most advanced version, which is quite different from the Chernobyl reactor which became internationally expelled after the nuclear disaster of April 1986.

Scientists at the Nuclear Power Corporation, Chennai, stress that the Koodankulam project is a `vast improvement' on the Chernobyl reactor with double containment ensured with two double walls measuring two feet each. Also, while the Chernobyl reactor used graphite as moderator and boiling light water as coolant, the Koodankulam reactor will use enriched uranium as fuel and light water as moderator.

In fact, according to the scientists, the VVER-1000 type reactor chosen for Koodankulam is an `extremely safe' reactorunder normal as well as abnormal conditions. The most important inherent safety feature is the so-called `negative power coefficient', wherein any increase in reactor power is self-terminating.

There are also provisions to reprocess spent fuel for the recovery of residual uranium and plutonium for use in the second phase. Liquid waste will be evaporated and the condensed vapours and water thus formed, recycled. An environmental survey laboratory, managed by Health Physics Division of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, will monitor radioactivity within a 30-km radius of the plant throughout its life.

Local misgivings

The other fear is that the release of water from the plant into the sea could cause its temperature to rise, destroying phyto-planktons and sea life in the process. As Dhas puts it, ``Any accident at the plant will destroy life within a 200-km radius. Remember Chernobyl. India cannot afford to face such a situation.''

Scientists dismiss the fears of fishermen on Marine life. According to them, the project would in no way affect marine life or fishing activity as the temperature gradient of the cooling water at the discharge point near the confluence with the sea will not exceed the five degrees centigrade prescribed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Hence there will not be any thermal pollution which could adversely affect the fish in the region. In fact, a slight increase in temperature is favorably for fish, they say.

Another fear is that the plant could aggravate the incidence of cancers.

But as per a study conducted by the International Atomic Energy Agency, radiation in the nuclear plant vicinity is much less than many other factors like radiation from cosmic rays (45mrem per year); soil ( 15mrem per year); water, food and air (25 mrem per year); air travel (4 mrerm per year) and X-rays (20 mrem per year). According to it, nuclear plant vicinity radiation is only 1 mrem per year.

People also express their worry about spent fuel disposal and safety of dismantled reactor .as a reactor can function only for30 years and maintaining it after that to avoid radiation spills will cost much more than the cost of the reactor.

Nuclear 123 agreement:

George W Bush signed the 123 agreement into law on October 9^th 2008 and made it clear that US will fulfill all its fuel assurance commitments in the agreement. He also specified that the agreement recognises India’s right to reprocess spent fuel.

India had raised certain concerns in the Bill passed by the US Congress. These related to certain aspects in the introductory section of the Bill, where it was specified that India's safeguarded fuel reserve should be “commensurate with reasonable reactor requirements”.

This was contrary to the 123 agreement where US had agreed to let India store lifetime supplies of fuel for its reactors.

Understanding Terms used in Energy

Terms U should know!

absolute zero: 0 Kelvin (-273^o C); the temperature at which all molecular movement ceases.

active solar: energy generated by a photovoltaic cell.

alpha particle: helium nucleus emitted from a heavy radioactive element.

anthracite coal: coal with 90% carbon, very high heating value and very low impurities.

atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus.

atomic mass: the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

atomic mass unit (amu): the weight of one proton or neutron.

background radiation: naturally occurring (i.e. non-enriched) radiation in the world around us to which humans are exposed constantly, including radiation from the sun, bricks, the earth, and naturally occurring radioactive isotopes in food.

beta particle: a negatively charged electron emitted during a nuclear reaction.

binding energy: energy contained in holding the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom or holding the atoms together in a molecule.

biomass: organic material such as wood, grain, etc. that is a source of renewable energy.

bituminous coal: the most abundant type of coal, which has a high heating value and usually a high sulfur content. Illinois coal is bituminous coal.

breeder reactor: a nuclear reactor in which a fissile fuel is produced from a non-fissile fuel by absorption of a fast neutron.

British thermal unit (BTU): energy required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.

boiling water reactor (BWR): nuclear reactor in which the water that moderates and cools the reactor also is used to drive the turbines.

calorie: the amount of heat needed to raise one gram of water by one degree Celsius.

chemical energy: energy stored on the chemical bonds of molecules.

coal: a fossil fuel comprised primarily of carbon formed by the decomposition of plant matter in non-marine environments billions of years ago; a fossil fuel.

coal gasification: process by which coal is converted into synthetic natural gas.

coal liquefaction: the process of converting coal into syncrude, or synthetic crude oil.

containment structure: reinforced enclosure around a nuclear reactor designed to keep all the radioactivity inside and filter it out of the inside atmosphere in the event of an accident; they are tested for susceptibility to tornadoes, earthquakes, airplanes flying into them (really), and explosives.

control rod: rods of cadmium or boron which can be placed in or removed from the core of a nuclear reactor to control the number of neutrons causing a chain reaction by absorbing neutrons.

control system: heat regulation devices in passive solar systems such as insulation, fans, and vents.

crude oil: the form in which oil is initially extracted which is a mixture of hydrocarbons with some oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur impurities; a fossil fuel.

deep mining: coal mining in which shafts and tunnels are used to extract coal from a seam.

diffuse radiation: solar radiation which can not be focused easily because it passes through cloudy skies.

electrical energy: the energy associated with movement of electrons through a wire or circuit.

electromagnetic radiation: radiation that is emitted in the form of photons, i.e. light.

endothermic: a reaction that takes heat in from the environment, that is, heat is absorbed by the system.

energy: the ability to do work. The source of energy is the rearrangement of chemical and nuclear bonds into a more stable state.

energy efficiency: the amount of energy extracted from a system divided by the amount of energy put into the system in order to recover the energy.

enrichment: the process by which the amount of uranium-235 in a mixture of uranium isotopes is increased from 7% to 2-3%.

exothermic: a chemical reaction which gives off heat to the environment, that is, heat is released from the system.

first law of thermodynamics: the total amount of energy and mass in the universe is constant; energy and mass can be neither created nor destroyed.

fissile material: nuclei that undergoes fission when a neutron is absorbed.

fission: bombarding a radioactive isotope with a neutron in order to split the nucleus into smaller parts, releasing energy.

fission products: isotopes produced when fissile material is split after colliding with a neutron.

flow: the total amount of water moving in a hydropower system per unit time.

fossil fuels: general term referring to fuels that have been generated by "fossilized" plant and animal matter over millions of years, i.e. coal, oil, and natural gas.

fractional distillation: method by which crude petroleum is refined into usable products.

fusion: the process of bringing two light nuclei together to form a heavier nucleus, thereby releasing energy from the loss of mass.

gamma particle: a high-energy electromagnetic photon released during radioactive decay.

gasohol: fuel made by distilling grain, wood, or other plant products into ethyl alcohol and mixing the alcohol with gasoline.

generator: a device consisting of a magnet and a coil of wire that changes the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy.

geothermal energy: energy from the inner core of the earth; specifically from hot, molten rock pushing through to near the surface of the earth heating the water.

greenhouse effect: phenomenon in which oxides of nitrogen and carbon trap the energy radiated from the earth.

greenhouse gases: oxides of nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon as well as CFC compounds which absorb infrared radiation from the earth, causing global warming.

head: term used to describe the height of falling water in a hydropower system.

heat: movement of molecules or atoms.

heat of formation: a measure of the binding energy of a molecule, set such that the heat of formation of O₂ is 0 kcal/mol.

heating value: a measure of the useful energy content of different fuels.

high-level radioactive waste: fission products of a nuclear reaction.

hydropower: energy from flowing water used for mechanical purposes or for electricity production.

insulation: process in which a material slows heat loss or gain.

isotope: nuclei of the same element that have the same atomic number but different atomic mass and neutrons.

joule: one Newton-meter; a unit of work equivalent to 0.239 calories.

kinetic energy: energy of motion, (1/2)mv².

lignite: "young" coal with high water content, low heating values, and typically many impurities

low-level radioactive waste: other waste products which result from working with radioactivity, such as gloves, mops, and filters.

mechanical energy: energy that can be used directly to do work, either potential or kinetic.

meltdown: a possible situation that may occur when a nuclear reactor core gets so hot (accidentally) that the fuel rods melt and release the radioactive fission products trapped inside.

methanogens: methane-producing bacteria.

MBPD: million barrels of oil per day.

moderator: substance used in nuclear reactors to slow down neutrons so that they can split a nucleus more easily.

multiple barrier containment system: a method of containing high-level radioactive waste in several layers, or barriers, to protect the environment. These include agents to absorb any incident ground water.

natural gas: methane with ~1% other light hydrocarbons; a fossil fuel.

neutron: a nuclear particle with a charge of zero and a mass number of one amu.

nuclear bombardment: hitting a nucleus with subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, or alpha particles.

nuclear energy: the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom which can be released upon fission.

nuclear waste: radioactive active waste resulting from the byproducts of nuclear reactions.

nucleus: the center of the atom where most of the mass is located in the form of protons and neutrons.

oil: a mixture of hydrocarbons formed by the deposition of dead plant, animal, and marine microorganism matter in or near marine sedentary basins.

oil shale: sedimentary rock containing solid organic material that can be converted to crude oil which is called shale oil.

OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

passive solar heating: using a material to collect and store thermal energy from the sun.

photon: a massless particle of electromagnetic energy (light).

photosynthesis: the production of glucose in a plant from water and carbon dioxide using solar radiation.

pH: a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is by the amount of H⁺ ions are in solution.

positron: a positive electron emitted from the nucleus during a nuclear reaction.

positron emission: a type of radioactive decay due to the emission of a positive electron.

potential energy: stored energy in a system which is a function of position or chemicalbonds.

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR): a nuclear power reactor in which the cooling water is kept under high pressure and not allowed to boil until the water passes into the turbine units.

primary oil recovery: a method of oil recovery whereby the oil flows from the well by its own pressure or is pumped out. This method recovers about 30% of the oil in the well.

proton bombardment: the bombardment of a nucleus with a proton in order to effect nuclear decay.

QUAD: an amount of energy equal to 10¹⁵BTU.

radiant energy: energy coming to earth from the sun.

radioactive: an unstable nuclei which will decay to a different nuclei and emit radioactivity (an alpha, beta, or gamma) in the process.

rem: a unit of nuclear radiation (dose) equivalent, (radiation equivalent for mammals). An average person is exposed to 300 mrem/year.

renewable resource: an energy resource in the environment which can be renewed if proper care is taken. Examples include hydropower, wind power, biomass, solar power, and geothermal energy.

reserve: the amount of a resource that is recoverable.

reservoirs: large deposits of natural gas.

second law of thermodynamics: the disorder in the universe always increases.

secondary oil recovery: method of oil recovery whereby the well is flooded with high-pressure water or gas, such as CO₂ to push the oil out. Recovers about 10% of the oil in the well after primary recovery.

short ton: 2,000 lbs of coal, which can provide about 26 x 106 BTU.

smog: smoky fog that hangs in the atmosphere as a result of burning fossil fuels with impurities, which can originate from the exhaust pipe of your car.

solar pond: a large pond with a salt gradient which traps heat from the sun and may be used to directly heat buildings.

subbituminous coal: coal with 40% carbon and less sulfur than lignite.

surface mining: type of coal mining (also called strip mining) in which layers of land are removed, leaving an open "pit."

syncrude: synthetic crude oil.

temperature: the average speed of all the molecules within a certain area.

tertiary oil recovery: method of oil recovery in which the oil is heated by burning it underground, adding steam, or adding a detergent to scrub it out. Typically recovers only an additional 10% of the oil in the well after primary and secondary recovery.

THERM: a measure of heat energy equal to 100,000 BTU.

thermal mass: a heat storage material, such as water or masonry, used in passive solar heating systems, which radiates heat to the surroundings after the sun goes down.

thermal energy: energy in the form of heat.

thermal neutrons: neutrons in a reactor that have the necessary energy (1/40 of an electron volt) needed to induce fission.

thermodynamics: study of energy relationships involving, heat, mechanics, work, and other aspects of energy and energy transfer.

third law of thermodynamics: all molecular movement stops at absolute zero.

transmutation: radioactive decay induced by particle bombardment.

waste heat: an unusable form of energy which inevitably results from energy transformation.

wind power: energy from the moving air which turns large windmills for electricity generation.

work: a force applied to an object over a certain distance.